Military Tech Changes Warfare and the World

What lessons can we learn from the introduction of gunpowder to Europe?

"File:Kurhan Mohi Battle 1241.JPG" by Sebastian.mrozek is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0.

One of the great turning points of history took place in 1241 in Mohi, Hungary. For two decades or so, the Mongols had gradually been encroaching on Europe, starting with Turkic states on the fringes and gradually moving into the heartland of the continent.

The Mongol vanguard reached Pest (part of Budapest since 1873) by March 1241. There were some skirmishes between Hungarians and Mongols. A fight broke out at the Sajó bridge, with crossbowmen giving the Hungarians an unexpected victory. The main battle broke out at Mohi the next day.

The details are a little murky nearly 800 years later, but it appears the Mongols used flaming arrows to sow disorder and defeat the Hungarian army. Military historians think this was the first time gunpowder was deployed in Europe.

Gunpowder had been discovered in China, along with other inventions like the wheelbarrow, supsension bridges and ship rudders. Chinese alchemists were already aware that adding three powders together could emit sparks by the 2nd century. After centuries of experimentation, they eventually settleed on 75 parts saltpeper, 15 parts charcoal and 10 parts sulfur as the classic recipe. It was used for fire crackers in the early years of the Northern Song, but wasn’t used by the military until surprisingly late.

Fire arrows, which included a pellet of gunpowders at the front of the shaft, first appeared in 904. Chinese soldiers used them against Mongol warriors, but failed to stem the tide. The Mongol conquerors of China adopted the technology and then used fire arrows against the Hungarians in 1241, only to retreat the next year.

It is unclear how exactly gunpowder spread to European military leaders. By 1267, though, English philosopher Roger Bacon recorded the recipe. The following years saw multiple innovations, including peasants being armed with handgonnes and the introduction of cannons.

These innovations radically changed European warfare: Mounted knights became vulnerable to barely trained commoners holding guns and castles could fall to cannons. The old way of war, based on codes of chivalry and feudal relationships, was gradually supplanted. Meanwhile, the need for armies of infantrymen (often mercenaries) led to the development of modern finance.

Luckily for humanity, two of the greatest writers to ever live were both alive during this revolution. By a strange coincidence, Miguel de Cervantes died on 22nd April 1616, while Shakespeare died a day later. The changing nature of warfare provided the backdrop to much of their work.

Cervante’s comic hero, Don Quixote, wants to live in an earlier age of chivalry, rather than the increasingly modern world, which seems mundane to him. Meanwhile, Shakespeare thought long and hard about the War of the Roses, which tore apart England between 1455 and 1487 as the nature of war was changing.

One of the main changes was one of mentality. Feudal warriors were characterized by utter certainty, as well as religiosity and superstition. Most of the crusades fall on this side of the great divide. Meanwhile, early modern wars were characterized by calculation, whether about the arcs of cannon fire or debts and taxes to pay Swiss mercenaries. The Turkish conquest of Constantinople (modern Istanbul) in 1453 and the European conquest of the Americas from 1492 both fall on this side of the great divide.

More recently, the revolution has been beautifully captured by British novelist Hilary Mantel, who passed away in September. Her Wolf Hall trilogy looks at the figure of Thomas Cromwell, who lived from 1485 to 1540 in Tudor England as the world was changing. She imagined the royal advisor of humble origins as an avatar of the coming world, who frequently clashes with old-world aristocrats who could not see beyond the old ways.

We are living at a time when military technology is once again playing an outsized role in current affairs. The M142 High Mobility Artillery Rocket System (HIMARS), developed in the US in the late 1990s, is proving to be a decisive weapon for the Ukrainian army as it fights back against Russian invaders. The combination of on-the-ground intelligence and HIMARS can be used to take out Russian ammunition dumps, leaving the invading army severely under-equipped.

More generally, innovation is the great motor of change in society. One of the central themes of Sharpen Your Axe is the need to optimize our institutions to protect inventors, entrepreneurs and early adaptors from predatory gangsters. Liberal democracies, which rely on feedback loops, can create an atmosphere where innovation can flourish in a way that Russia’s mafia state simply cannot match, particularly when its brightest residents flee to more hospitable lands. The comments are open. See you next week!

Further Reading

Gunpowder by Charles River Editors

Guns, Germs and Steel by Jared Diamond

Wolf Hall by Hilary Mantel

Don Quixote by Miguel de Cervantes

Henry VI, Parts I, II and III by William Shakespeare

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Opinions expressed on Substack and Twitter are those of Rupert Cocke as an individual and do not reflect the opinions or views of the organization where he works or its subsidiaries.